This feeling of a depressed mood is also accompanied by two or more additional symptoms, to include changes in appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, and poor concentration or difficulty with decision making. a - a mole that looks cancerous. The FDAs 2013 recommendation for tighter controls on opiate prescriptions left many patients addicted to prescription drugs like OxyContin unable to obtain legitimate prescriptions. Following the initial rush, users experience 46 hours of going on the nod, alternating between conscious and semiconscious states. Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). As he went to investigate what was going on, he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the murder of his wife (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake. High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. 1. (credit: modification of work by new 1lluminati/Flickr), Medical marijuana shops are becoming more and more common in the United States. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. Asleep spindleis a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). While people are often unaware of their sleep apnea, they are keenly aware of some of the adverse consequences of insufficient sleep. They were ALL my fault. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and heavy meals before bed. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. the ability to spend time, good time with them when youre not feeling absolutely exhausted . Many of these drugs, and their relationships, are shown inTable 4.2. For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. 1. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. In contrast,non-REM (NREM)sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. 0. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai, Chen, & Hsu, 2013). Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. B) the cause of the problem. During this time, an individuals heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. When he told me, I made him go see the college therapist. Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep. Acontinuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)device includes a mask that fits over the sleepers nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the persons airways, forcing them to remain open, as shown inFigure 4.13. For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. Acircadian rhythmis a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. These effects can occur as a function of accumulated sleep debt or in response to more acute periods of sleep deprivation. The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. Methamphetamine in its smokable form, often called crystal meth due to its resemblance to rock crystal formations, is highly addictive. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. d. both b and c. 2. My sophomore college housemate got so stressed out during finals sophomore year he drank almost a whole bottle of Nyquil to try to fall asleep. Early versions of this theory proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations of angst proposed by Freud and others, but were rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of (synthesize) the neural activity (activation) that was happening during REM sleep. Methamphetamineis a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies). Has something like this ever happened to you? The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013). The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. In Falaters case, a jury found him guilty of first degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however, there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been used successfully. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. Jet lag is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. The Safe to Sleep campaign educates the public about how to minimize risk factors associated with SIDS. These sleep episodes are often associated withcataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. While the possession and use of marijuana remain illegal in many states, it is now legal to possess limited quantities of marijuana for recreational use in eleven states: Alaska, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. As the dose increases, people report feeling sedated. Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. When we do this, we often experience jet lag. Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders will be described. Some forms of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, can help sufferers of insomnia. Confusion. To date, people have used a variety ofnicotinereplacement therapies in addition to various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use of tobacco products. that would be one of the problems that Ive encountered. These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. 2. It may surprise you to know that sleep deprivation is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels of stress hormones, and reduced immune functioning (Banks & Dinges, 2007). Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001; Siegel, 2001). In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. A womans menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythma recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. This section will present information relating to the use of various psychoactive drugs and problems associated with such use. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. . Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. Research indicates that included among these possible benefits are increased capacities for creative thinking (Cai, Mednick, Harrison, Kanady, & Mednick, 2009; Wagner, Gais, Haider, Verleger, & Born, 2004), language learning (Fenn, Nusbaum, & Margoliash, 2003; Gmez, Bootzin, & Nadel, 2006), and inferential judgments (Ellenbogen, Hu, Payne, Titone, & Walker, 2007). Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea (OSA), and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. In addition, these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia (Fiorentini et al., 2011). Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. Other drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine, have also been used to alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal. The effects of all psychoactive drugs occur through their interactions with our endogenous neurotransmitter systems. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. Insleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. Loss of appetite. Two of them I didnt even know I was involved in until afterwards (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. The low cost coupled with lower risk of overdose than with opiate drugs is making crystal meth a popular choice among drug users today (NIDA, 2019). Wakefulnessis characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior. Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. Large-scale public health campaigns by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse have led to recent declines in the opioid crisis. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Two theories attempt to answer this question: One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it as the performance of a social role. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). Elements that are known to make PTSD more likely are the following: Perceived life threat Personal injury Interpersonal violence, particularly perpetrated by a caregiver Past and present vulnerability, including genetics, childhood trauma, insufficient emotional support, concurrent causes of stress Example: Childhood abuse and rape How does hypnosis work? Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. The treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia (e.g., spending more waking time in bed). Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. This pattern of temperature fluctuation, which repeats every day, is one example of a circadian rhythm. Disorganized Thinking. Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. Individuals who suffer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. A) a mole that looks cancerous B) nasal congestion C) change in heart rate D) issues with breathing Which of the following American health care systems is most known for requiring a referral from a primary care doctor in order to see a specialist? Weakness and fatigue. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds.
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